Public Sector Accounting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Public Sector Accounting - Research Paper Example In respect to accounting there are differences in objectives of accounting process between public and private sectors. In addition, this paper identifies some of the critical differences in accounting between public and private sectors. Amongst such differences identified is measurement of performance through profits, as well as rate or return as in the case of private sector, which is lacking in the public sector. Other than the critical differences, this paper identifies accounting differences that emanate from the financial control aspect, whereas legislators or parliament financially controls public sectors, private sectors are financially controlled by the shareholders. Another important difference identified is the aspect of spending as public sectors unlike private sectors do not have a choice but to spend. Lastly, the paper identifies the auditing aspect of accounting, which differs in these two sectors in respect to its objectives. From the discussion, the paper concludes th at the differences in accounting stem from varied management and control aspects of public and private sectors. Introduction Public sector refers to national, regional and local governments, in addition to various institutional units that are governed and controlled by governments of different nations or economies. Private sector, on the other hand, is composed of institutions that are neither governed nor controlled by the government (Jorge, 2008). The management and control of such organizations lie in the hands of private individuals and not the government. Given the differences in management and control of the public and private sector, many other differences stem particularly with regards to operations, accounting, and investments. In terms of operations, whereas private sector is driven by the need to make profits, public sector is non-profit but is driven by ensuring that the citizens of a country obtain all the public goods and services at minimal costs (Kieso, Weygandt & Wa rfield, 2011). The following is an evaluation of the accounting differences between the public/government sector and private sector. Differences in accounting between the Public Sector/Government and Private sector Differences in accounting between the public and private sector stem from their management and control. Firstly, there are differences in the objectives of accounting between public and private sectors (Lienert, 2009). In private sector the objectives of accounting amongst other things include informing stakeholders about performance of the business, providing possible investors information, aiding management decision making, and increasingly informing regulators. Public sector on the other hand has different accounting objectives (Jorge, 2008). Amongst the traditional accounting objectives in public sector include providing financial summary, enabling a detailed comparisons of spending to be made with proposed budget, allowing identification of spending so as to ensure c ompliance with law and other legal authorities, and providing the basis for the next budget. Nonetheless, in the modern perspective this has greatly changed where public sector engages in accounting for the purposes of informing stakeholders, providing possible investors with creditworthiness information, aid in management, identifies assets and liabilities, as well as facilitates democracy transparency (Kieso, Weygandt

Individual Human Beings, Organisations, Groups and Artefacts Essay

Individual Human Beings, Organisations, Groups and Artefacts - Essay Example When companies’ performance in terms of product production is studied, then we say that the companies make the unit of analysis for that case. On the other hand, Artefacts comprises of books, poems, paintings, and evensongs, they also make up a unit of analysis. When one studies or learns about a certain book, then the book becomes a unit of analysis, since one’s aim will entail analyzing different aspects in the book (Downing & Clark, 2010). The ecological fallacy, emphases about clarity on the units of analysis, and how ambiguities lead to an error, the conclusions made from an analysis conducted at a group level may not relate at the individual level.   Equally, analyses at the individual level may not pertain to the group level analysis. Most important, the analysis should take place at the level where generalizations should be implied. For example, if a city as a unit of analysis, with most researchers, has the highest crime rates it does not mean that the resear chers commit the crimes, but they get drawn there for study purposes (Downing & Clark, 2010). Question two. The two models of explanation include the deductive explanation and the probabilistic explanation. The deductive explanation amounts to a deductive assumption of explanation under the principles with general laws and particular facts. It seeks to answer why things happen the way they happen or occur, by presenting that the episode resulted from a particular situation specified. An example of an inductive explanation could be the explanation why the handle of a spoon appears bent at a point where it emerges from a glass of water. Therefore, in this case the explanation would be deductively based under the laws of reflection and refraction to account for the appearance of the spoon. Hence, the deductive explanation involved forms universal theoretical principles (Downing, & Clark, 2010). The probabilistic explanation forms assertions to account that if certain specified circumst ances or situations occur, then the occurrence of such events must follow from the statistical probabilistic laws. Their occurrence does not invoke a universal law but rather generalization about its effect. It thus presupposes general laws of statistical nature, as opposed to universal held theories and principles. An example of the probabilistic explanation could be to infer why a patient heals after taking a given drug, say penicillin. This can be explained by presupposing a general link between the illness and the drug, and conclude that it is the drug that can heal the illness in a high percentage of situations (Downing & Clark, 2010). Question three Levels of measurement implies to the process or properties that define the measurement process itself. Therefore, most of the social phenomenon can be measured in any of the following levels of measurement: ratio, ordinal, nominal and interval. Using the ordinal and interval levels one can measure age, since age as a variable has a ttributes of exclusive and mutually inclusive categories. With ordinal, age can be ranked from the highest to the lowest. In addition, using the interval level, age can be grouped or classified into different age groups. Therefore, using the ordinal scale one can express income in monetary terms and that a single value can take different numbers. One could also use the interval scale, since income as a variable can be expressed as quantities, thus categorising and classifying it. Family size can

Replica Synchronization in Distributed File System

Replica Synchronization in Distributed File System J.VINI Racheal ABSTRACT The Map Reduce framework provides a scalable model for large scale data intensive computing and fault tolerance. In this paper, we propose an algorithm to improve the I/O performance of the distributed file systems. The technique is used to reduce the communication bandwidth and increase the performance in the distributed file system. These challenges are addressed in the proposed algorithm by using adaptive replica synchronization. The adaptive replica synchronization among storage server consists of chunk list which holds the information about the relevant chunk. The proposed algorithm contributing to I/O data rate to write intensive workload. This experiments show the results to prove that the proposed algorithm show the good I/O performance with less synchronization applications. Index terms – Big data, distributed file system, Map Reduce, Adaptive replica synchronization INTRODUCTION The distributed environment which is used to improve the performance and system scalability in the file system known as distributed file system [1]. It consists of many I/O devices chunks of data file across the nodes. The client sends the request to the metadata server who manages all the whole system which gets the permission to access the file. The client will access the storage server which is corresponding to it, which handles the data management, to perform the real operation from the MDS The distributed file system of MDS which manages all the information about the chunk replicas and replica synchronization is triggered when any one of the replica has been updated [2]. When the data are updated in the file system the newly written data are stored in the disk which becomes the bottleneck. To solve this problem we are using the adaptive replica synchronization in the MDS MapReduce is which is the programming primitive , programmer can map the input set and obtaining the output and those output set send to the reducer to get the map output. In the MapReduce function it is written as the single node and it is synchronized by MapReduce framework [3]. In distributing programming models which perform the work of data splitting, synchronization and fault tolerance. MapReduce framework is the programming model which is associated with implementation for processing large data sets with distributed and parallel algorithm on a cluster of nodes. Hadoop MapReduce is a framework for developing applications which can process large amounts of data up to even multiple terabytes of data-sets in parallel on large clusters which includes thousands of commodity nodes in a highly fault tolerant and reliable manner. The input and the output of the MapReduce job are stored in Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). RELATED WORKS GPFS [4] which allocates the space for the multiple copies of data on the different storage server which supports the chunk replication and it writes the updates to all the location. GPFS keeps track of the file which been updated to the chunk replica to the primary storage server. Ceph[5] has replica synchronization similar ,the newly written data should be send to all the replicas which are stored in different storage server which is before responding to the client. Hadoop File System [6] the large data are spitted into different chunk and it is replicated and stored on storage servers, the copes of the any stripe are stored in the storage server and maintained by the MDS, so the replica synchronization are handled by the MDS, the process will be done when new data written on the replicas. In GFS [7], there are various chunk servers were the MDS manages the location and data layout. For the purpose of the reliability in the file system the chunk are replicated on multiple chunk ser vers; replica synchronization can be done in MDS. The Lustre file system [8], which is known for parallel file system, which has replication mechanism For better performance Mosa Store [9] which is a dynamic replication for the data reliability. By the application when one new data block is created, the block at one of the SSs is stored in the MosaStore client, and the MDS replicate the new block to the other SSs to avoid the bottleneck when the new data block is created. Replica synchronization is done in the MDS of MosaStore. The Gfarm file system [10] the replication mechanism is used for data replication for the reliability and availability. In the distributed and parallel file system, the MDS controls the data replication and send the data to the storage servers; this makes pressure to the MDS. Data replication which has the benefits to support for better data access was the data is required and provide data consistency. In the parallel file system [11], this improves the I/O throughput, data duration and availability by data replication. The proposed mechanism, according to the cost of analysis the data pattern are analysed a data replication is done, but replication synchronization is done in the MDS. In the PARTE file system, the metadata file parts can be replicated to the storage servers to improve the availability of metadata for high service [12]. In detail we can say that in the PARTE file system, the metadata file parts can be distributed and replicated to the corresponding metadata into chunks on the storage servers, the file system in the client which keeps the some request of the metadata which have been sent to the server. If the active MDS crashed for any reason, then these client backup request are used to do the work bu the standby MDS to restore the metadata which are lost during the crash. iii.PROPOSED SYSTEM OVERVIEW The adaptive replica synchronization mechanism is used to improve the I/O throughput, communication bandwidth and performance in the distributed file system. The MDS manages the information in the distributed file system which is split the large data into chunks replicas. The main aim of using the mechanism adaptive replica synchronization because the storage server cannot withstand the large amount of the concurrent read request to the specific replica, adaptive replica is triggered to the up to chunk data to the other related SSs in the hadoop distributed file system [13][5].The adaptive replica synchronization will be preformed to satisfy heavy concurrent reads when the access frequency to the target replica is greater than the predefined threshold. The adaptive replica synchronization mechanism among SSs intends to enhance the I/O subsystems performance. Fig 1: Architecture of replica synchronization mechanism A. Big data Preparation and Distributed data Storage Configure the storage server in distributed storage environment. Hadoop distributed file system consists of big data, Meta Data Servers (MDS), number of replica, Storage Server (SS). Configure the file system based on the above mentioned things with proper communication. Prepare the social network big data. It consists of respected user id, name, status, updates of the user. After the data set preparation, it should be stored in a distributed storage server. B. Data update in distributed storage The user communicates with distributed storage server to access the big data. After that, user accesses the big data using storage server (SS). Based on user query, update the big data in distributed storage database. By updating the data we can store that in the storage server. C. Chunk list replication to storage servers The chunk list consists of all the information about the replicas which belongs to the same chunk file and stored in the SSs. The primary storage server which has the chunk replica that is newly updated to conduct the adaptive replica synchronization , when there is a large amount of the read request which concurrently passes in a short while with minimum overhead to satisfy this that mechanism is used. D. Adaptive replica synchronization The replica synchronization will not perform synchronization when one of the replicas is modified at the same time. The proposed mechanism Adaptive replica synchronization which improve the I/O subsystem performance by reducing the write latency and the effectiveness of replica synchronization is improved because in the near future the target chunk might be written again, we can say that the other replicas are necessary to update until the adaptive replica synchronization has been triggered by primary storage server. In the distributed file system the adaptive replica synchronization is used to increase the performance and reduce the communication bandwidth during the large amount of concurrent read request. The main work of the adaptive synchronization is as follows: The first step is chunk is saved in the storage servers is initiated .In second step the write request is send one of the replicas after that the version and count are updated. Those SS update corresponding flag in the chunk list and reply an ACK to the SS. On the next step read/write request send to other overdue replicas .On other hand it should handle all the requests to the target chunk and the every count is incremented according to the read operation and frequency is computed. In addition, the remaining replica synchronization for updated chunks, which are not the hot spot objects after data modification, will be conducted while the SSs are not as busy as in working hours. As a result, a better I/O bandwidth can be obtained wi th minimum synchronization overhead. The proposed algorithm is shown in algorithm. ALGORITHM: Adaptive replica synchronization Precondition and Initialization: 1) MDS handles replica management without synchronization, such as creating a new replica; 2) Initialize [Replica Location] [Dirty], [cnt], and [ver] in Chunk List when the relevant chunk replicas have been created. Iteration: 1: while Storage server is active do 2: if An access request to the chunk then 3: / Other Replica has been updated / 4: if [Dirty] == 1 then 5: Return the latest Replica Status; 6: break; 7: end if 8: if Write request received then 9: [ver] ↠ I/O request ID; 10: Broadcast Update Chunk List Request; 11: Conduct write operation; 12: if Receiving ACK to Update Request then 13: Initialize read count 14: [cnt] ↠ 1; 15: else 16: /Revoke content updates / 17: Undo the write operation; 18: Recover its own Chunk List; 19: end if 20: break; 21: end if 22: if Read request received then 23: Conduct read operation; 24: if [cnt] > 0 then 25: [cnt] ↠ [cnt] + 1; 26: Compute [Freq] 27: if [Freq] >= Configured Threshold then 28: Issue adaptive replica synchronization; 29: end if 30: end if 31: end if 32: else 33: if Update Chunk List Request received then 34: Update chunk List and ACK 35: [Dirty] ↠ 1; break; 36: end if 37: if Synchronization Request received then 38: Conduct replica synchronization; 39: end if 40: end if iv.PERFORMANCE RESULTS The replica in the target chunk has been modified by the primary SSs will retransmits the updated to the other relevant replicas, and the write latency is which is required time for the each write ,by proposing new mechanism adaptive replica synchronization the write latency is measured by writing the data size. Fig:2 Write latency By the adaptive replica synchronization we can get the throughput of the read and write bandwidth in the file system. We will perform both I/O data rate and the time processing operation of the metadata. Fig.3.I/ O data throughput VCONCLUSION In this paper we have presented an efficient algorithm to process the large amount of the concurrent request in the distributed file system to increase the performance and reduce the I/O communication bandwidth. Our approach that is adaptive replica synchronization is applicable in distributed file system that achieves the performance enhancement and improves the I/O data bandwidth with less synchronization overhead. Furthermore the main contribution is to improve the feasibility, efficiency and applicability compared to other synchronization algorithm. In future, we can extend the analysis by enhancing the robustness of the chunk list REERENCES [1] Benchmarking Mapreduce implementations under different application scenarios Elif Dede Zacharia Fadika Madhusudhan,Lavanya ramakrishnan Grid and Cloud Computing Research Laboratory,Department of Computer Science, State University of New York (SUNY) at Binghamton and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory [2] N. Nieuwejaar and D. Kotz, â€Å"The galley parallel file system,† Parallel Comput., vol. 23, no. 4/5, pp. 447–476, Jun. 1997. [3] K. Shvachko, H. Kuang, S. Radia, and R. Chansler, â€Å"The Hadoop distributed file system,† in Proc. 26th IEEE Symp. MSST, 2010, pp. 1–10, [4] M. P. I. Forum, â€Å"Mpi: A message-passing interface standard,† 1994. [5] F. Schmuck and R. Haskin, â€Å"GPFS: A shared-disk file system for large computing clusters,† in Proc. Conf. FAST, 2002, pp. 231–244, USENIX Association. [6] S. Weil, S. Brandt, E. Miller, D. Long, and C. Maltzahn, â€Å"Ceph: A scalable,high-performance distributed file system,† in Proc. 7th Symp. OSDI, 2006, pp. 307–320, USENIX Association. [7] W. Tantisiriroj, S. Patil, G. Gibson, S. Son, and S. J. Lang, â€Å"On the duality of data-intensive file system design: Reconciling HDFS and PVFS,† in Proc. SC, 2011, p. 67. [8] S. Ghemawat, H. Gobioff, and S. Leung, â€Å"The Google file system,† in Proc. 19th ACM SOSP, 2003, pp. 29–43. [9] The Lustre file system. [Online]. Available: http://www.lustre.org [10] E. Vairavanathan, S. AlKiswany, L. Costa, Z. Zhang, D. S. Katz, M. Wilde, and M. Ripeanu, â€Å"A workflow-aware storage system: An opportunity study,† in Proc. Int. Symp. CCGrid, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2012, pp. 326–334. [11]GfarmFileSystem.[Online].Available:http://datafarm.apgrid.org/ [12] A. Gharaibeh and M. Ripeanu, â€Å"Exploring data reliability tradeoffs in replicated storage systems,† in Proc. HPDC, 2009, pp. 217–226. [13] J. Liao and Y. Ishikawa, â€Å"Partial replication of metadata to achieve high metadata availability in parallel file systems,† in Proc. 41st ICPP, 2012, pp. 168–1.

Lusitania Essay -- essays research papers

Lusitania It was 2:10 p.m. on May 7, 1915. Leslie Morton, a lookout on the Lusitania, screamed, "Torpedoes coming on the starboard side." Two explosions followed. Within 18 minutes the huge liner, once the largest ever built, sank to the bottom of the Celtic Sea. 1,195 out of the 1,959 people aboard died. Walther Schwieger, commander of the German submarine U- 20, who had fired a single torpedo 750 yards away from the ship, later called it the most horrible sight he had ever seen. The Lusitania entered service between Liverpool and New York on September 7, 1907. Funded by the British Admiralty, the Lusitania, built by the Cunard Steamship Company, was required to double as an auxiliary cruiser in case of war. This was a secret agreement between the Admiralty and Cunard. On May 12, 1913 she was put in drydock to be double plated and hydraulically riveted, as well as modified for the application of guns. War was declared on August 4, 1914, and the ship was sent again into drydock. There she was armed with 12 six-inch guns(Simpson 60). Britain wanted to ship war materials over the Atlantic, but there was an embargo of shipping munitions on passenger ships. America also tended to publish the cargo manifests so that the Allies as well as the Germans would know what is being shipped. Britain found a loophole in this. New cargo added at the last minute did not go on the original manifest, thus a supplementary manifest would be submitted 4 or 5 days later. Also, due to t...

Interview a Professor

If freshmen can make a personal connection with Just one faculty member, their chances for success at JUS are vastly improved. Therefore, this professor interview is designed to get you talking to one of your professors outside the classroom. Make the interview into a conversation. If you see this as a quick item of busy work, you will not really get to know the professor. Don't go in, ask the questions, and keep your head down the entire time scribbling notes Instead, really listen to the professors responses and ask follow up questions that interest you.Remember, the goal of the roofless interview is to get to know one of your professors, not to write down his or her exact words. Don't worry about taking down every word your professor says instead, take some notes on key ideas. If you truly listen to the professors responses, you'll remember all you need to write up the interview questions afterwards. To free you up even more to listen and interact with your professor, you might co nsider recording the conversation with a device like your cell phone and then transcribing the interview later.However, before recording, always ask the professors permission iris Believe it or not, but professors were once students too, so take the time to really get to know this professor and what insight he or she can give that might help guide you through your own college experience. This should be a professor who you interact with in some way (advisor, class Instructor, faculty advisor of an organization, etc. ). This assignment should be completed In a face-etc;-face meeting Interview Questions 1. Name of professor. 2. What Is the name of the department In which the professor teaches 3. What courses does the professor teach 4.What Is the professors favorite course to teach 5. What Is the reason the professor chose this area In which to major 6. What degrees did the professor earn From what schools 7. How has higher education changed since the professor was In college 8. What a re the professors Interests, hobbles, recreational actively, etc. 9. What Is the professors favorite book, TV program, movie, etc. 10. What Is the professors Idea of an Ideal student Why 11. What kind of student was the professor 12.

Review of Article the Influence of Organizational Culture on Employee Work Behavior

The objectives of this research are to examine the influence of organizational culture on employee work behavior. Moreover, there are to explain the influence that organizational culture has on employee work behavior, to formulate recommendations regarding organizational culture and employee work behavior. There are a few questions that were asked, in order to measure the result. In addition, the method was used in this research is a survey research method. Plus, respondents were selected by using stratified and simple random sampling techniques. Primary data were collected through questionnaire. Data were presented and analyzed by means of simple percentage and the hypotheses were tested by chi-square test statistics. However, the result of the findings shows that organizational culture i. e. norms, artifacts, values, traditions, assumptions and belief influences employee work behavior. Recommendations were also made to the organizations that will find this study relevant to their course to make their culture simple and easy to grasp and adhere to so that their employees can be free to put in their best. In addition, the organization should build trust among the employee and managers by using Islamic perspective. Review Each of us has a unique personality – traits and characteristics that influence the way we act and interact with others. When we describe someone as warm, open, relaxed, shy, or aggressive, we’re describing personality traits. An organization, too, has a personality, which we call its cultures. And culture influences the way employees act and interact with others (Robbin & Coulter, 2012). However, not all organizations that have cultures influence employees’ behaviors and action. The organization with strong cultures has more influence rather than weak cultures organization. In this study we can see the result from analyzed the data that the culture is one of the key elements that organization must be concerned, as the top manager can take the attention of this topic and make change to the organization by motivate the employees through improve the organization cultures which can be done through many ways such as through organization stories, rituals, language or material artifacts and symbols. In addition, the result of strong culture may lead employees to improvement of performance, responsibility and well-being. Moreover, in the organization hould build trust among the employees and managers by using Islamic perspective in order to perform more efficient and receive effective outcomes within the organization. Summary and review of problem statement and purpose of study The importance of employee’s performance or behavior will appear on their work which the organizational culture is one of many factors that drive the employee’s work. There are many researches in different area of studies related to this topic. Hence, there is no widely accepted causal the relationship between organizational culture and employee work behavior in the last few decades. The empirical evidences emerging from various studies about the effect of organizational culture on employee work behavior have so far yielded mixed results that are inconclusive and contradictory. Because of these contradictory results, the question of whether organizational culture improves or employee’s work behavior is getting worse still worthy of further research. In addition, despite the existence of these studies, very little attention has been given to developing countries. This means that the impact of organizational culture on employees’ work behavior has not received adequate research attention in Nigeria. Thus, there is a major gap in the relevant literature on Nigeria, which has to be covered by research. This research attempts to fill this gap by studying the situation of the Nigerian service industry and providing more empirical evidence on the effects of organizational culture on employee work behavior in Nigeria. The purpose of this study is: (i) To ascertain if organizational culture influence employee work behavior. (ii) To find out if organizational culture affects organizational productivity. (iii) To disclose whether a change in organizational culture could lead to a change in employee work behavior Review From the problem and the purpose of this journal tell us that they want to prove whether the little thing that organizations in nowadays less concerned which is organizational culture may influence the performance of employees by using empirical evidences with Nigeria Nestle industry. Addition, to indicate that cultures within organizations was an interesting topic to be study and can be a significant affect within the organizations. Summary of the Literature review Conceptual framework of organizational cultural Organizational culture has been appeared in various field of human science studies such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. The study of organizational culture is widely defined by many scholars yet the definition is not mainly accepted (Ojo, 2012). Organization culture has affected on productivity of organizational activities which mean it has influence outcomes of the company in term of performance, commitment, self-confidence and ethical behavior. In other words organizational cultural is one of vital elements organization's success that manipulate employee work behavior. Defined the organizational culture According to Morgan, 1997 defined organizational culture as one of the metaphors used for organizational analysis. He suggested that the basic of organization involves in the development of shared meaning, beliefs, norms, values and assumptions which are shaped by organizational behavior. Another definition of organizational culture is a set of values that help organization members know which is acceptable and that which is unacceptable within the organization (Ojo, 2010). Thus , in our opinion , organizational culture is values which involve in beliefs, norms and perspectives within organization which it help shaping the member's behavior and perceive what is right and wrong within the organization . Organizational values According to Jehn, (1994) & Hall (1999) explained that organizational values are expected to produce higher levels of productivity , job satisfaction and commitment . In this statement, it can be said that organizational values are also key in organization behavior which it affect on each individual and organizational outcomes of the company. How organizational cultures develop The values and norms which are the basis of culture formed through 4 ways 1. By leaders in the organization 2. through critical incidents or important events 3. through effective working relationship among organizations members 4. Through the organization's environment There are seven dimensions organization culture that could be used to compare culture across organizations are innovation and risk taking, attention to detail, outcome orientation, people orientation, individual vs. team orientation, aggressiveness and stability Types of organizational culture according to Handy (1993) 1. Power culture: Control or power emanate from the centre, personal power predominate. This culture serves the figure head and the leader 2. Role culture: bureaucratic nature; roles more important than the people who fill them; position power predominates, and expert power tolerated. This culture serves the structure. 3. Task culture: The focus is on completing the job; individuals’ expertise and contribution are highly valued; expert power predominates, but both personal and position power are important; the unifying force of the group is manifested in high level of collaboration 4. Person culture: A loose collection of individuals – usually professionals – sharing common facilities but pursuing own goals separately; power is not really an issue, since members are experts in their own right. This type of culture serves the individual. According to Handy (1993) describes that the culture within organization affects the way that it operates and it's member behave. So in our opinion suggest that the culture in organization it affects both physically and mentally which means it causes both the way they think and act within organization among the members. Concept of behavior Human behavior is complex, it is not easy to study and define as others studies because human beings are different from one another in term of perspectives, cultures, and beliefs. However, the operant conditioning model is one model that used to explain human behavior. Conditioning is a systematic procedure through which associates and responses to specific stimulate learning ( Hollinshead, Nicholls and Tailby, 2003). Operant conditioning is defined as â€Å"a type of learning in which the desirable or undesirable consequences of behavior determine whether the behavior is repeated† (Sorensen, 2002). It is also known as instrumental conditioning. The probability of an event occurring depends on its consequences. Summary of the research methodology In this journal, the research methodology that the authors used is survey research. The theoretical population of the study consists of the entire workers of Nestle Nigeria PLC, Ikeja, Lagos State, Nigeria. The technique to select the participating respondents is the stratified sampling because it is effective coverage and lower cost. Thereafter, a total of 55 employees were selected using simple random sampling method which the employees were stratified into junior, intermediate, and senior cadres. Yet the returned of complete questionnaire is only 50 to be used in analyzing. The Primary data collected through the administration of questionnaire were used for this journal. The questionnaire was titled â€Å"Organizational Culture and Employee Work Behavior Questionnaire† To ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire used for the study, even number of experts was consulted to look at the questionnaire items in relation to its ability to achieve the stated objectives of the research, level of coverage, comprehensibility, logicality and suitability for prospective respondents. Data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed, summarized, and interpreted accordingly with the aid of descriptive statistical techniques. Chi-square was used to measure the discrepancies existing between the observed and expected frequency and to proof the level of significance in testing stated hypotheses. Summary of the findings and discussions Based on analyzed data, the findings in this study include the followings: 1) A large number of respondents 84. 0% of the respondents agree that organizational culture influence employee work behavior. 2) 72. 0% of the respondents agree that organizational culture is a determinant of productivity level of the organization. 3) 84. % of the respondents agree that a change in culture will cause a change in employee work behavior. 4) 54. 0% of the respondents agree that organizational norm is a major determinant of organizational culture. 5) Majority of the respondents (56. 0%) agree that organizational artifact is a major factor of organizational culture. 6) Organizational values influence employee work performance as 50. 0% of the respondents agree to this. 7) Adequate motivatio nal factors improve employee work behavior. 46. 0% of the respondents agree to this. From the hypotheses tested, we are able to discover the following: 1) In testing the first hypothesis, indicates that organizational culture has a significant influence on employee work behavior. 2) When the second hypothesis was tested indicates that organizational culture is a major determinant of organizational productivity. 3) Finally, when the third hypothesis was tested it was also discovered that a change in organizational culture will cause a change in employee work behavior. From the result of analyzing can conclude that: (i) Organizational culture influence employee work behavior in the organization. ii) Organizational culture is a determinant of the productivity level of the organization. (iii) Changing in organizational culture will lead to a change in employee work behavior. (iv) Organizational culture has a significant influence on employee work behavior. Discussion Why the culture important? For one thing, in organizations with strong cultures, employees are more loyal than employees in organizations with weak cultures (Robbin Coulter, 2014). For example, International Islamic University Malaysia that we are all have stayed, studied and worked. Many of staffs that we know have been work here more than 20 years and many students hat graduated from here continue study master in the same place. We think that one of the important reason of those people felt that IIUM had a very strong culture, not only employees that is loyal, but customers (students) is also feeling the same. Therefore, we are strongly agree that the organizational culture effected to employee work behavior. The suggestion for the journal 1. Even though individual has different in term of cultures, perspectives, beliefs and behaviors, one should be able to cope with others members in the organization to accomplish the same goals. The individual must have ability to adopt oneself to the organizational environment and cultural that will determine how one behaves at work. Nestle Nigeria Plc. Should encourages new entrants to internalize first with organization culture to know whether they can cope with them or not. 2. Should provide adequate motivational factors such as housing allowance , car loan , holiday allowance that will make their employee feel comfortable and satisfied with the company 3. Should operate strong culture not weak culture, which it can help employees perform better and it leads to efficient and effective performance. . The organization should build trust among employees and managers by using lslamic perspective. Trust is an important element in Islam as Allah (SWT) mentioned a lot verses in the and also our Prophet Muhammad (SAW) encourage us to implement our daily activity, the company relationship whether the employee in private business or within the public sector. Thus, trust plays and key role in bringing individuals together to create value that no one person could create on her partner as well as trust in relationship among members of business partners. It is emphasized in the Qur’an: â€Å"Allah commands you to deliver trusts to those worthy of them; and when you judge between people, to judge with justice†. (al-nisa’, 4:58. What is more obvious here is in that the verse is addressed to everyone when holds everything in trust. Here, we forewarned against the evil, position of trust to incompetent, mean, immoral, dishonest. According to Hadith : â€Å"Every one of you is a guardian and everyone will be asked about his subjects. Imam is a guardian. He will be asked about his subjects. A man is the guardian of the persons in his household. He is answerable about them. A woman is the guardian of her husband's house. She will be asked about her responsibility. The servant is the guardian of the articles of his master. He is answerable about this responsibility of his† (Bukhari) The Muslims are directed to take head of this and to entrust position of responsibility. Trust arises within community of regular, honest and corporative behavior based on commonly shared norms. The employees are trusted in organization they will feel more comfortable and good perform within the organization as the result, they will produce efficiency and effective outcomes.

Health Is The State Of Well Being Social Work Essays

Health Is The State Of Well Being Social Work Essays Health Is The State Of Well Being Social Work Essay Health Is The State Of Well Being Social Work Essay I have chosen this definition due to my exposure in nursing as a pupil, I have attained the decision that the word wellness to an ordinary person in the general populace is refering to the whole organic structure which is, free of any unwellness or any disease which can forestall the normal physical, emotional and religious operation of an mean human being. In order to hold a good wellness, an single ought to be able to execute all of the activities of day-to-day life, such as, being able to keep strong societal relationships ; being able to kip good and eat good ; being able to make things that can be contributed to the society or community and besides being able to look after oneself. Mental wellness is the status whereby persons are non merely free of any major mental wellness upsets but is holding the right province of cognitive, emotional and psychological well being. With all these facets, an person is able to transport out activities in the society, and run into the ordinary demands of mundane life. I have chosen this definition is based on my exposure to mental wellness in the infirmary scene, the most commonly account refering to mental wellness expressed by ordinary people of the society is merely whether an person is holding the ability to take part in normal activities of day-to-day life ; able to pass on usually with the society ; able to get by with reverses in life, such as personal job, household jobs and even relationships jobs ; able to show one s ain emotion and in conclusion one who can hold the positive sense of ego. However, many persons of the society ever have the misconception between mental wellness and mental unwellness. In fact, mental wellness is holding the capableness to equilibrate any emotional, societal, psychological and biological factors. Whereas mental unwellness is a diagnosable upset that affects an person s cognitive, emotional or societal abilities. My ain thoughts about mental wellness and mental unwellness came from reading books ; reading diary articles which are refering to mental wellness and mental unwellness and by sing as a nursing pupil during clinical arrangements. Yes, I do believe that despite that an person is being diagnosed with mental unwellness, however, they are still considered every bit healthy as ordinary persons. As holding a mental unwellness such as bipolar disease ; anxiousness upset or schizophrenic disorder does non intend that an person is non healthy. Mental unwellness will merely act upon on the affect of the cognitive, behavioral, communicating and rational abilities of an person. The facets of being healthy is that an person is capable of transporting out activities of day-to-day life such as, being able to get by with day-to-day emphasiss ; expression after oneself ; populating a good quality of life. Even though, these persons might be holding so mental upset, but it may be at a different grade of badness, where different persons may see different types of symptoms. Equally long as these persons are able to eat and kip good they are considered as healthy and holding the organic structure organs to work at an acceptable d egree. Mental unwellness is an on-going unwellness where it can repeat anytime in life which needs changeless direction. If mental unwellness is being decently good taken cared and early sensing was made, most persons are able to mend wholly with no extra episodes of unwellness. Although some persons will be sing ongoing symptoms of mental unwellness, but these persons still can populate a full and productive life every bit long as it is the symptoms are being managed good. I have understood the significance of recovery in mental unwellness through reading books. It was meant non merely about the full recovery in mental unwellness where 1 is to the full recovery without mental unwellness, but it is really the province where an person is able to populate their life meaningfully in malice of holding a mental unwellness ( Muir-Cochrane, Barkway A ; Nizette 2010, p. 4 ) . It every bit good intend that the persons are able to happen occupations, where they can work and back up themselves financially ; taking the duty in occupations ; holding the ability to pull off a long term relationship ; holding the ability to look after themselves ; able to show their emotions and feelings. Populating meaningfully is non merely free of the mental unwellness, it every bit long as one is capable to populate life with hopefulness and dreams that they want to accomplish and able to lend to the society. Recovery emphasizes that although persons may non be able to hold full direction over their symptoms but they still can hold full control over their lives. Stigma is where the society discriminates or labels a group of persons who are non every bit worthy as the normal persons of the society ( Morrison-Valfre 2009, p. 73 ) such as, either persons who are with a physical disablement or mental unwellness. Persons who are sing stigma with mental unwellness might be affected in the undermentioned ways. Unemployment, the persons will see troubles in acquiring a occupation, or the employers are unwilling to use persons with mental unwellness. As a consequence the person will be unemployed and they ca nt back up themselves financially. Stigma can halt persons from seeking aid from the public even if they are meeting some symptoms of mental unwellness, due to the shame or reluctant which they experienced after being stigmatized by the society. This can decrease the effectivity of the intervention if it is delayed, as the earlier the intervention commence the better the results will be. Persons may experience being isolated from the society, therefore persons with mental unwellness feel that they are being rejected by the society and hence are unwilling to acquire along with people. Persons might hold low ego regard, they will be given to fault themselves for holding this mental upset or they might lost all assurance for everything in life and even perpetrating self-destruction as they feel they are useless. Mention lists Mental wellness recovery theoretical account n.d. , Fairfax Country, Virginia, viewed 11 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fairfaxcountry.gov/csb/region/Resources/mhrecoverymodel.pdf gt ; . Mental wellness: beef uping mental wellness publicity 2010, World Health Organization, Switzerland, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs220/en/ gt ; . Department of Health and Ageing, What is mental unwellness? , Australian Government 2007, Australia, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/B7B7F4865637BF8ECA2572ED001C4CB4/ $ File/whatmen.pdf gt ; . The stigma of mental unwellness n.d. , Toby House Inc, USA, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.tobyhouse.com/mentalillness/stigma.htm gt ; . Sherman, P 2007, Stigma, mental unwellness and civilization, Scribd, USA, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scribd.com/doc/11731670/The-Stigma-of-Mental-Illness gt ; . Barkway, P 2009, Mental wellness A ; mental unwellness A ; ATOD , talk notes distributed in the subject NURS 2108 Mental Health and Mental Illness, Flinders University, Bedford Park on 10 August 2010. Flinders University 2010, Study program: NURS 2108 Mental Health and Mental Illness , Flinders University, Bedford Park. Mental Health 2010, Wikipedia, USA, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health gt ; . Health 2010, Wikipedia, USA, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health gt ; . Muir-Cochrane, E, Barkway, P A ; Nizette, D 2010, Mosby s pocketbook of mental wellness, Elsevier Australia, Chatswood. Challenging stigma 2005, Response Ability, Australia, viewed 10 August 2010, lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.responsibility.org/client_images/33762.pdf gt ; . Morrison-Valfre, M 2009, Foundations of mental wellness attention, 4th edn, Mosby Elsevier, USA.

The Growing Importance of Monetary Policy in Government

The Growing Importance of Monetary Policy in Government Monetary policy is important in decisions the United States government makes about economic practices and regulations, but equally important are the fiscal policies, which government spending and tax reform are geared toward in stimulating the economy. To understand the importance of monetary policy in the equation, one must first understand what the term means. The Economic Times defines monetary policy as the macroeconomic  policy  laid down by the central bank, which manages interest rates, money supply, and functions as the demand side of economic policy to affect inflation, consumption, growth, and liquidity. There is, however, a limit to the amount monetary policy can affect the economy because it hinges upon interest rates and monetary circulation. Once the interest rate hits zero, theres not much more the Federal Reserve can do in terms of monetary policy to help the economy. Fighting Inflation Versus Fighting Unemployment The  U.S. Department of State  argues that one of the key reasons that monetary policy is favorable during financially successful periods of the American economy is that it affects inflation rates positively but is relatively useless in fighting unemployment.   This is because theres a limit to the amount of monetary manipulation the Federal Reserve can do to the global value, or exchange rate, if the U.S. dollar plummets. Monetary policy primarily affects interest rates through control of the amount of currency in circulation (and other factors), so when the interest rate bottoms out at zero percent, theres nothing else a bank can do. If you take a look back at the Great Depression, over 3,000 banks failed during the 1930s- monetary policy meant very little when the value of the dollar had sunk to its lowest rate in history. Instead, fiscal policy and a series of unpopular yet successful economic policies helped America get back on its feet. Fiscal policy opened up new jobs and increased government spending to right the wrong of the market crash. Basically, the United States- or any governing body- can, in times of need, enact aggressive fiscal policy to combat market stagnation. How Monetary Policy Applies Now Because the United States economy has experienced its highest point in the last decade (the 2010s), monetary policy that cuts taxes and increased government spending in business and job-creation markets, especially under former President Barack Obama, has led to a decrease in the unemployment rate and a rapid increase in the United States GDP. Fiscal and monetary policies go hand in hand in the  federal legislature, where annual budgets dictate government spending in certain economy-stimulating areas as well as the creation of jobs through social welfare initiatives. The Federal Reserve annually dictates interest rates, liquidity, and currency circulation, which in turn also stimulate the market. In truth, without either fiscal or monetary policy in United States federal- and indeed local and state- government, the delicate balance of our economy might slip back into another Great Depression. Regulations, therefore, are important to maintaining a status quo across all states wherein each citizen is guaranteed their rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

How to Express Future Time in English

How to Express Future Time in English Legend has it that the final words of French grammarian Dominique Bouhours were, Je vais ou je vas mourir; lun et lautre se dit, ou se disent. In English that would be, I am about to or I am going to die. Either expression is used. As it happens, there are also multiple ways of expressing future time in English. Here are six of the most common methods. the simple present: We leave tonight for Atlanta.the present progressive: Were leaving the kids with Louise.the modal verb will (or shall) with the base form of a verb: Ill leave you some money.the modal verb will (or shall) with the progressive: Ill be leaving you a check.a form of be with the infinitive: Our flight is to leave at 10:00 p.m.a semi-auxiliary such as to be going to or to be about to with the base form of a verb: We are going to leave your father a note. But time is not quite the same as grammatical tense, and with that thought in mind, many contemporary linguists insist that properly speaking, the English language has no future tense. [M]orphologically English has no future form of the verb, in addition, to present and past forms. . . . In this grammar, then, we do not talk about the future as a formal category . . ..(Randolph Quirk et al., A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman, 1985)[W]e do not recognize a future tense for English. . . . [T]here is no grammatical category that can properly be analyzed as a future tense. More particularly, we argue that will (and likewise shall) is an auxiliary of mood, not tense.(Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2002)There is no future tense ending for English verbs as there is in other languages . . ..(Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge University Press, 2006)English has no future tense, because it has no future tense inflections, in the way that many other languages do, nor any other grammatical form or combination of forms that can exclusively be ca lled a future tense.(Bas Aarts, Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 2011) Such denials of a future tense may sound paradoxical (if not downright pessimistic), but the central argument hinges on the way we mark and define tense. Ill let David Crystal explain: How many tenses of the verb are there in English? If your automatic reaction is to say three, at least, past, present, and future, you are showing the influence of the Latinate grammatical tradition. . . .[I]n traditional grammar, [t]ense was thought of as the grammatical expression of time, and identified by a particular set of endings on the verb. In Latin there were present tense endings . . ., future tense endings . . ., perfect tense endings . . ., and several others marking different tense forms.English, by contrast, has only one inflectional form to express time: the past tense marker (typically -ed), as in walked, jumped, and saw. There is therefore a two-way tense contrast in English: I walk vs I walked: present tense vs past tense. . . .However people find it extremely difficult to drop the notion of future tense (and related notions, such as imperfect, future perfect, and pluperfect tenses) from their mental vocabulary, and to look for other ways of talking about the gramm atical realities of the English verb.(The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003) So from this perspective (and keep in mind that not all linguists wholeheartedly agree), English doesnt have a future tense. But is this something that students and instructors need to be concerned about? Consider Martin Endleys advice for EFL teachers: [T]here is no harm done if you continue to refer to the English future tense in your classroom. Students have quite enough to think about without being troubled by such matters and there is little sense in adding to their burden needlessly. Yet, underlying the dispute is an important issue that does have an obvious bearing on the classroom, namely, the difference between the way the present and past tenses are marked on the one hand, and the way the (so-called) future tense is marked on the other.(Linguistic Perspectives on English Grammar: A Guide for EFL Teachers. Information Age, 2010) Fortunately, English does have a future with plenty of ways of expressing future time.

Roots of the post Second World War environmental movements Essay

Roots of the post Second World War environmental movements - Essay Example The Second World War was described as a ‘watershed’ that developed into environmental activism that spawned quickly during the 1960s.The Second World War was a time of difficulty for many people around the world,it was also realized that the world was a small space that needed to be protected from the constant destruction by man towards the environment. After the war, the 50s was a fast-paced moving world littered with images of the perfect life, the perfect housewife in advertisements. These images were to accommodate a growing push towards a more materialistic life as more and more inventions were being made and used. Among a lot of the products available during the 1950s were items that were actually hazardous to the environment like the hairspray from the musical ‘Hairspray’ for example that encouraged the use of hairspray in modern hairstyles as well as the release of dangerous chemicals such as CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon) and vinyl chloride which was a known carcinogen. It was also during the 1950s and the 1960s as more and more industrial accidents occurred that affected the environment that caused a revived concern about how we treated our ecology. The modern livelihood of man was farfetched from the roots that they have begun as hunters and gatherers who are more ecologically aware and attentive to the adverse effects of man and their exploitation and manipulation of their environment (Sahlins 1971) but as industrialization began to boom even more quickly the way man lived prior to the Second World War was a far cry from contemporary man. ... garments and transient objects. Aside from the growth of industrialization man continued to try and change their environment to bend to their own will. For example, if during Victorian times a garden was simply a garden and ways to control pesticides from invading gardens were by utilizing simple home remedies such as using vinegar. With the growth of industrialization and as many more people became wealthy enough to own a garden albeit with lesser time due to work quicker pesticides were used as a solution to pest problems in home gardens and in industrial farms. In 1960, a naturalist by the name of Rachel Carson began to publish a series of writings that were concerned with the adverse effects of the use of chemicals in the control of natural environments (Nash 1990:192-194). For example, she argued that the use of DDT which was only to get rid of weeds and pesticides affected the surroundings of the weeds themselves therefore also pointlessly poisoning the earth for no apparent reason in gardens except to make them look good and for industrial farms the ability of evolution would only create and cause even more stronger pesticides who will be resistant to the effects of the DDT and therefore needing even stronger more dangerous chemicals. Although cries such as Carson on the effects of chemicals were heard but not fully heeded it was also a backlash against government policies which tended to support industrial growth rather than protect the environment for the 'benefit' of the people. The politics of pollution during the 50s and 60s was a climate that favoured a 'little bit' of pollution and some money to be made over the unalterable effects on the earth's nature. For example, in the 1950s to the early 1960s the United

What is a principle Scholarship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What is a principle - Scholarship Essay Example Other than these two examples, we can also observe the system of the whole world running on a defined set of principles. Principles hold a key value in my life. To me, principles act as foundations for every personal and professional success. I never overlook my principles while dealing with any matter of life. Whatever the situation is, I always take every step following my principles. Some of my core qualities include honesty, truth, moral courage, hard work, and sincerity. I have based all of my principles on these characteristics. I always try to be sincere to others, speak truth in any situation, defend the disadvantaged, raise my voice over in any unlawful situation, work hard for my better future, and avoid backbiting. These are my principles of life which I follow in all situations that occur in my life. I abide by my principles because they are the real gems of my life. They always keep me on the right track. They make my inner clean and fulfilled. They also guide me when I am in some trouble. On many occasions of my life, my principles have made me satisfied and pleased. Whenever I help a disadvantaged person, I feel extremely satisfied and relieved. Similarly, when I speak truth in a situation where it can cause problems for me, I feel that I have done something admirable. I love to follow all of my principles because they are as precious for me as any other asset. I believe that principles are assets that produce a number of considerable benefits for a person. Although we cannot touch these assets the way we touch and feel tangible assets, but the benefits associated with these assets are not less in worth than tangible assets. I would say that principles are such assets that guide us to acquire a number of tangible and intangible assets. I believe that a person can never achieve success in his/her life without following some key success principles. The reason is that principles give us direction while enlightening the way to

Victorian Equity Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Victorian Equity Law - Essay Example This position arises in case of relationships between solicitor and client, parent and child, wife and husband which is known as fiduciary relationship, where trust and confidence exists. In this case, undue influence is presumed by law unless until it is proved contrary2. The presumption of undue influence is recognised by court of law basically where fiduciary relationship exists believing that in fiduciary relationship one party succeeds in exerting unfair influence or undue influence over the other. The court of law recognises relationship between employer and junior employee, doctor and patient also to bring into the ambit of presumption of undue influence3. In fiduciary relationship between wife and husband the creditor has a bounden duty before obtaining guarantee from the wife where wife is not a benficiary, is that a) to take reasonable steps to establish that her consent had been properly obtained, b) to discuss the facts with her c) to warn her of the consequences d) to suggest to take independent legal advise. Failing which, the transaction could be set aside by court of law4. Equity law protects innocent persons from undue influence by giving an opportunity to rescind the contract executed under undue influence. Defence available to opposite party if the fact of non existance of undue influence is rebutted with evidence5. Undue influence: Undue influence is classified into three types, a) actual undue influence, b) presumptive undue influence and c) proven undue influence. Actual undue influence is to be proved. Presumptive undue influence exists where trust and confidence is placed upon a strong party, especially in fiduciary relationships such as solicitor and client, religious adviser and disciple, physicians and patients, and parent and child. Proven Undue influence is similar to presumed undue influence except that in proven undue influence the trust and confidence is to be proved unlike in case of presumptive undue influence. Special Wives Equity: The law provides special equity for wives to protect their interest from the undue influence of their husbands, who take advantage of the weaker position of their wives. Under this equity if the transaction is clouded by actual undue influence and the creditor has the knowledge of existence of marriage between the surety and the borrower the transaction will be set aside. The law further provides that even there is no actual undue influence the transaction is subject to be set aside at the option of the surety unless the creditor has taken sufficient measures to bring to her notice and inform her suitably the effect of the transaction. The law says in special wives equity constructive notice of undue influence or relationship of influence is immaterial, mere knowledge of existence of marriage is sufficient. In Garcia case, which is relied on Yerkey v Jones8 the High Court has discussed elaborately on the principles based on the doctrine of Special Wives Equity. Clear and thorough study of the judgment in Garcia case shows how the different principle adopted in case of Wives in setting aside of security of wife is justified when compared to the non-wives security to third party, duly following the law of equity6. Garcia vNnational Australia Bank ltd7: National Australian Bank

Mans Search for Meaning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Mans Search for Meaning - Essay Example However, the 20th century revealed another image of human, less generalized and, in his drives, a more individual one. Viktor E. Frankl, mostly basing his ideas on his psychoanalytic experience in concentration camps during World War II, had developed quite opposite to Freud’s one, and more current point of view on a subject. According to Frankl, one of the key drives for human existence is finding a meaning of life. Considering human as an animal of higher order, Freud naturally generalizes drives of human life to instincts, which are common for all people, and also are inherent for all human beings. Thus, the reasons for individual to behave in particular way also originate from the â€Å"inside† of a human, because those reasons are rather inherent or based on individual’s past. Freud is known to be the â€Å"father† of psychoanalysis, and in his studying of neuroses he also believed, that the common origin for all mind disorders is a past psychological trauma. Therefore, neuroses are caused by those human desires which once in the past were repressed by individual himself (even if he was forced to repress his desires as the result of psychological trauma). This idea naturally comes from Freud’s structural model of human’s psyche, which consists of three parts. â€Å"Id† is a driving force for all human actions and behavior, and is in common for all hu man beings. â€Å"Ego† is human’s individuality, which is reasonable, and therefore establishes connections between â€Å"id† and â€Å"superego†. â€Å"Superego† is a human inner censor, who gauges actions. â€Å"Superego† is based upon issues of authorities. Yet Freud rests most of the responsibility for human behavior on that â€Å"id†, which always stays in common for all individuals while â€Å"ego† and â€Å"superego† depend on conditions very much. In his book, Man’s Search for Meaning Frankl brings next Freud’s utterance.

Interest Group Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Interest Group Politics - Essay Example Something must have really happened but the truth could only be revealed by those considered not useful in the industry but they indeed have a lot of underground information. Blaming the failure to effectively control the smoking of cigarettes in the US on politics as suggested by Sapolsky is entirely wrong and short sighted. Even though there is huge political influence from the politicians that is not entirely the reason cigarette smoking is still persistent in the US (Sapolsky 8). The author of this article would have explored the profits the companies make and how the market is widely providing taxes and hence the protection and control is coming from people with much more influence and more money than the politicians. There are many people with vested interest in continuation of cigarette smoking. In as much as large organizations can move directly and not through lobbyist, their success rate compared to that of organizations (no matter how minor) that use lobby groups to advocate for changes in congress is way higher (Hojnacki and David 778). The article by Hojnacki and Kimball would have been more convincing if they had indicated figures on the success rate of such major organizations because research about lobbyists suggest

Finace (IGR, SGR, EFN) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Finace (IGR, SGR, EFN) - Case Study Example The remaining income was added back as the retained earnings for the company. This type of retained earnings generally helps companies like S&S Air to provide for internal financing required for further investments in the company. However, in the past S&S Air did not have proper planning regarding the investment opportunities of the company. As a result of this, the company lost sales in the past and had to go through crunch situations as regards to the liquidity position of the company. Hence the company is requiring the need for proper planning for its future investments. Ratio analysis has been done to analyze the current financial condition of the company. Next utilizing the financial ratios calculated, the owners of the company is willing to have a proper financial planning of S&S Air in future. The company needs this type of planning to decide upon the forecasted sales next year which the company can expect to generate. Moreover it would also help the company to know whether an y external financing is required to have the desired growth of the company next year. The company management also needs to have a proper idea about its current efficiency in utilizing its capacity so that improvements can be made if the capacity utilization of the company is less. Hence, calculating the internal growth rate and sustainable growth rate of the company along with the EFN, can help the company plan efficiently for the upcoming Fiscal Year 2012. Question 1: Calculate the internal growth rate and sustainable growth rate for S&S Air. What do these numbers mean? Answer: Internal Growth Rate (IGR) The internal growth rate of a company is given by the following formula (Ross, Westerfield, and Jordan 108): Internal Growth Rate = (ROA*b)/(1-ROA*b) Where, ROA = Return on Assets = Net Income/Total Assets b = Retention Ratio = (Addition to Retained Earnings/Net Income) Thus for S&S Air, ROA = 1,845,242/17,379,480 = 10.62% = 0.1062 b = (1,285,242/1,845,242) = 69.65% = 0.6965 (appro x) Hence, the Internal Growth Rate for S&S Air is given by: Internal Growth Rate = (0.1062*0.6965)/(1-0.1062*0.6965) = 7.99 % This implies that S&S Air would be able to expand its business and grow at a rate of 7.99% per year without the need of any external financing. Sustainable Growth Rate (SGR) This growth rate gives a measure about the growth of a company utilizing its internal financial sources (Jones 383). It is given by the formula: Sustainable Growth Rate = (ROE * b)/(1-ROE*b) Where, ROE = Return on Equity = Net Income/Total Equity b = Retention Ratio Thus for S&S Air, ROE = 1845242/9556430 = 19.31% = 0.1931 b = 69.65% = 0.6965 Hence, the Sustainable Growth Rate for S & S Air is given by: Sustainable Growth Rate = (0.1931*0.6965) * (1 - (0.1931*0.6965)) = 15.54% This implies that S&S Air would be able to expand and grow at a rate of 15.54% per year without the need of any equity financing externally. Question 2: S&S Air is planning for a growth rate of 12 percent next year. Calculate the EFN for the company assuming the company is operating at full capacity. Can the company's sales increase at this growth rate? Answer: External Financing Needed (EFN) A company requires financing from external sources if it is unable to generate adequate cash flows required to fulfill its present financial obligations (Moles, Parrino, and Kidwell 756). The EFN for S&S Air is calculated using the pro forma statements which utilizes the approach related to percentage of

Interest Group Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Interest Group Politics - Essay Example Something must have really happened but the truth could only be revealed by those considered not useful in the industry but they indeed have a lot of underground information. Blaming the failure to effectively control the smoking of cigarettes in the US on politics as suggested by Sapolsky is entirely wrong and short sighted. Even though there is huge political influence from the politicians that is not entirely the reason cigarette smoking is still persistent in the US (Sapolsky 8). The author of this article would have explored the profits the companies make and how the market is widely providing taxes and hence the protection and control is coming from people with much more influence and more money than the politicians. There are many people with vested interest in continuation of cigarette smoking. In as much as large organizations can move directly and not through lobbyist, their success rate compared to that of organizations (no matter how minor) that use lobby groups to advocate for changes in congress is way higher (Hojnacki and David 778). The article by Hojnacki and Kimball would have been more convincing if they had indicated figures on the success rate of such major organizations because research about lobbyists suggest

Compare and Contrast the Way Rupert Brooke and Wilfred Owen Approach the Subject of War Essay Example for Free

Compare and Contrast the Way Rupert Brooke and Wilfred Owen Approach the Subject of War Essay The title of this poem is very powerful. It tells the reader that this is a very sad poem and that by going to war death is almost certain. Sassoon has done this to give the reader an idea of war, and, as the reader reads the poem their insight into the brutality and the sorrow of war increases. The first paragraph of this poem tells of the slow death of a soldier as the sun rises. Sassoon has skilfully manipulated language and his choice of words in order to create a visual image that is slowly sculptured as the first four lines are read. Dark clouds are smouldering into red while down the craters morning burns the dying soldier shifts his head? To watch the glory that returns† The first half of the second paragraph speaks of the patriotism of soldiers for their countries and how they â€Å"want† to die for their land. This can be observed in the line â€Å"Hankering for wreaths and tombs and hearses†. The final half of the second paragraph tells of how the soldier faces his destiny with courage. Writing has always been a tool for reflecting and commenting on society. During the 20th century many poets reacted to problems in the world with highly emotionally charged poems. The horror of war and the spiritual degradation it inflicts is evident in the work of the World War I poets. Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) and Siegfried Sassoon (1886-1967) were both soldiers and poets. Their poems reflect the loss of innocence and the horrible mental and physical toll World War I inflicted on the world. ?Both Sassoon and Owen wrote war poetry to inform people of the realities of war. Sassoons efforts to publicly decry the war were stunted when the military announced he suffered from shell-shock and sent him to a hospital to recover. His poetry became the means of sharing his opinion that the war had become a war of aggression and conquest, (Norton 1832). He wanted to share with the public the true cost of war. His poem They reflects the common assumptions of the people at home about what the soldiers will be like when they come home. He wipes away all the illusions and shows that youll not find/A chap whos served that hasnt found some change (lines 9-10). In the poem, the soldiers dont return better and brighter. Instead, Sassoon shows how they return less whole by describing their injuries.? Sassoon met Owen while both were in the hospital recovering. Both mens greatest achievements as poets dealt with the war. Sassoons poems about the war were, deliberately written to disturb complacency, (Poets 855). He called them trench-sketches and wrote about what he witnessed while fighting with detail and honesty. Many of his war poems are highly satirical. While at home during the war, he was disturbed by the publics opinion of the war. Poems such as Blighters show his anger toward the civilian world:? Id like to see a Tank com down the stalls,? Lurching to rag-time tunes, or Home, sweet Home. ? And thered be no more jokes in Music-halls? To mock the riddled corpses round Bapaume. (5-8)? While Sassoon wrote war poetry to express his anger about the war, Owens main influence on his writing was not just a desire to show what war was actually like, but also an expression of the horrors he saw in many aspects of life. His poetry was heavily influenced by nightmares he experienced since his childhood which were only worsened by his experiences in battle. While in the hospital, Sassoon helped Owen with his writing. At first, Owen used many of the same shock tactics used by Sassoon, but he eventually found his own voice. After helping Owen with final editing process of Anthem for Doomed Youth, Sassoon wrote that he, realized that his verse, with its sumptuous epithets and large-scale imagery, its noble naturalness and the depth of meaning, had impressive affinities with Keats, whom he took as his supreme expemplar. This new sonnet was a revelation . . . It confronted me with classic and imaginative serenity (Poets 750). Owens poems, such as Anthem for Doomed Youth and Apologia pro Poemate Meo were not just inspired by war or dreams, but were also written as replies to other authors, the latter in response to a remark by Robert Graves. Own was not only powerful in his subject matter, but also technically, which is why Sassoon, Graves, and other poets admired his work. His use of para-rhyme added greatly to his poetry because it, produces effects of dissonance, failure, and unfulfilment that subtly reinforces his themes, (749).? Both poets wanted to express their views and feelings about the war. Their experiences in battle, although horrible, inspired them to write better poetry than they did before the war, and in Sassoons case, even after the war. Owen seems to be a more psychologically complex person. His poems are often melancholy and reach people on a deeply emotional level. Sassoons poems also affect people, but they do not leave a lasting impression. Sassoons goal as a war poet is to shock, while Owens goal is to make people experience deep emotion. It is obvious from Sassoons own remarks about Owen that even he felt the extreme emotional and lyrical power of Owens poems. The work of each poet serves as a reminder of the awfulness of war and the effect war has on peoples lives. Dulce Decorum Est The poem Dulce Decorum Est was written by Wilfred Owen. This poem illustrates how poetry can be influenced by the subject of the words rather than the words influencing the topic. The poem uses various literary devices to show that dying for ones country can be a very ugly and horrible thing; putting this idead into a poem, makes poetry a very ugly thing. Wilfred Owens makes use of many devices, but one of the first ones used in the poem is a simile. Bent double, like old beggars under sacks. This allows one to imagine a group of people hunched over, to malnourished and beaten to even stand up straight. Another example is floundring like a man on fire or lime. The man described has been poisoned by gas, but he looks as though he is running around trying to put out a fire on himself. The simimle illustrates the suffering of the man and his hopelessness. The author also utilizes words that have definite negative connotations in order to give the reader a feeling of unease and malady. Words such as sludge, fatigue, guttering, froth-corrupted, vile, and incurable, all have negative connotations. The words taken from the context of the poem still do not, and likely could not have any possible positive images or ideas associated with them. By choosing such words Owen condemns his poem to being sorrowful, sad and ugly. This is likely the authors intent as he sees war, sorrowful, sad, and ugly. Owen uses these literary devices and others to reach a single end. A sensory image of watching a man, in service of his country, die a terrible death. These include, the images of hunched men traveling through mud, hearing gas shells and putting on masks, a man drowning in gas, and the horrible ghastly death of that man. Owen incorporates sound with the blood Come gargling which enhances the horror felt by the reader. Wilfre Owen uses all these techniques to illustrate a simple point, that the phrase Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, or translated to english, sweet and honorable it is, to die for the fatherland, is a lie. His poem tries to make real to the reader how horrible death is even when in the service of ones country. The statement is often made to children in search of adventure, but Owen makes clear that it is indeed a falsehood.

Purpose and Use of Different Accounting Records

Purpose and Use of Different Accounting Records Accounting record is defined as the all of the documentations involved in the preparation of financial statements and records which are relevant to financial review and audits which include recording of assets and liabilities, ledgers, journals, and any other supporting documents like invoices. Ledger: Maintaining ledger is a must in all accounting system. Ledger is used for preparing trial balance which checks the arithmetical accuracy of the accounting books. Ledger is the store-house of all kind of information which is used for preparing final accounts and financial statements. Prime entry books: The other one is prime entry books which are also known as books of original entry are books where transactions are first recorded. The main books of prime entry consists of sales day book, purchase day book, sales return day book, purchase return day book, general journal and cash book (Ducha, et.al, 2008). Accounting plays important and useful role by developing the information for providing answers to many questions faced by the users of accounting information. It provides information how good or bad the financial condition of the business is, which activities or products have been profitable. Accounting is important for a business entity for the following reasons: Accounting record, set on the base of even practices, will assist a business to compare results of one period with another period. Insulating records, backed up by proper and genuine vouchers are good evidence in a court of law. Increased volume of business results in large number of transactions and no businessman can remember everything. Accounting records avoid the necessity of remembering various transactions. Fundamental concepts of accounting Accruals concept of accounting: Other than the cash flow statement, the accounts have been set on an accruals basis. The accruals basis of accounting involves the non-cash of transactions to be mirrored in the financial statements for the period in which those effects are experienced and not in the period in which cash is actually received or paid (Open University Course Team, 2006). Going concern: The accounts have been prepared on a going concern basis which means that the accounts have been prepared on a going concern basis. It further clears that the accounts have been prepared on the assumption that the authority will continue to operate for the foreseeable future. The Avenue account and Balance Sheet assume no intention to significantly curtail the city Councils operations (Open University Course Team, 2006). Consistency concept: There are a number of different ways in which some concepts can be applied. Each business must choose the approach that gives the most reliable picture of the business, not just for this period, but over time also. According to the consistency convention, when a method has been adopted for the accounting treatments of an item, the same method will be adopted for all subsequent occurrences of similar items. However, it does not mean that the firm has to follow the method until the firm closes down. (Open University Course Team,2006). Prudence Concepts: The account should be prudent when preparing financial statements. In other words, if something is in doubt, plan for the worst and, if a transaction has not yet been completed ignore ant possible benefits that may arise from it (Open University Course Team, 2006). Business entity concept: It is one of the main accounting principles of accounting this concept says that Business should be treated separately from the property owner or investor In simple words we can say owner of the business should be treated separately from the business whatever profits come in to the business should be taken in company account. Under the business entity concept, the activities of a business are recorded separately from the activities of its owners, creditors, or other businesses (Ducha, et.al, 2008). Different factors of accounting system: Computerised accounting system: Keeping accurate accounting records is a vital part of managing an organisation. Apart from helping to keep it afloat financially and legally, it is also a requirement of funding bodies. Smaller groups can usually manage with simple book-keeping procedures but bigger groups juggling with larger sums of money and more complex financial transactions may find their workload eased by using a computerised accounting system. The good news is that there are easy to use and reasonably priced computerised accounting packages on the market that are either aimed at, or can be adapted to, voluntary sector organisations (Ducha, et.al, 2008). Manual Accounting Systems: Accounting systems are manual or comprised. Understanding a manual accounting system is useful in identifying relationships between accounting data and reports. Also, most computerised systems use principles from manual systems. In other words, Manual accounting and bookkeeping systems are the traditional form of maintaining a businesses accounts and records. They involve keeping various ledgers and files which typically include a cash book, sales and purchase day books and petty cash sheets. Although the use of basic manual bookkeeping systems requires little knowledge or skill in accounting, they are still the preferred method of accounting for those who have used them in the past (Drew, et.al, 2000). Considering factors when using computerised and manual accounting system: The capacity to generate sales /increase invoices; the necessity to compute/include VAT in accounting; cost how much can a firm truthfully afford on software, updates and support, the capability to process payroll, and stock control are the considering factors of computerised accounting system. Task 2 Meaning of business risk: Business risk is associated with the uncertainty of a companys future cash flows, which are affected by the operations of the company and the environment in which it operates. It is the variation in cash flow from one period to another that causes greater uncertainty and leads to the need for greater compensation for investors. For example, companies that have a long history of stable cash flow require less compensation for business risk than companies whose cash flows vary from one quarter to the next, such as technology companies (Fabozzi, et.al, 2007). Components of business risks: Operational risks: The risk of loss resulting from insufficient internal processes, people and systems, or from external events which includes legal risk. In other words, the risk of loss resulting from failure to comply with laws as well as prudent ethical standards and contractual obligations which includes the exposure to litigation from all aspects of an Institutions activities. The definition does not focus strategic or reputational risks. In other words, operational risks are concerned to enhance operational risk assessment efforts by encouraging the industry to develop methodologies and collect data related to managing operational risk. Strategic and reputational risk is not included in this definition for the purpose of a minimum regulatory operational risk capital charge which focuses on the causes of operational risk and the Committee believes that this is appropriate for both risk management and, ultimately, measurement (Fabozzi, et.al, 200). Compliance Risks: Compliance risk can be defined as the current and potential risk to earnings or money arising from violations of, or non-conformance with, laws, rules, approved practices, internal policies, and methods, or moral standards which arises in situations where the laws or rules prevailing certain bank products or activities of the Banks clients may be unclear or unverified. This risk exposes the institution to fines, civil money punishments, payment of damages, and the voiding of contracts (Fabozzi, et.al, 200). Liquidity risks: Liquidity risk can be explained as the current and approaching risk to earnings or capital arising from a banks incapability to meet its obligations when they come due without incurring unacceptable losses. Liquidity risk includes the inability to manage unplanned decreases or changes in funding sources. Liquidity risk also arises from the failure to recognize or address changes in market conditions that affect the ability to liquidate assets quickly and with minimal loss in value (Neu, and Malz, 2007). Meaning of risk management: The true connotation of managing the risks is combined with the activities of human wherein the identification of the risk, risk evaluation, adapting techniques to manage it and lessening of risks by using managerial strategies is done. The various ways in creating risk management includes moving the possible risk to other group, preventing the risk from happening, lessening the risks negative effects and recognizing all the consequences that a specific risk might bring (Blokdijk, 2007) Corporate governance According to Cadbury Report, Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled where the role of the shareholders is to appoint the directors and the external auditors, and to satisfy themselves that an appropriate governance structure is in place where directors are responsible for setting the companys strategic aims, providing the leadership to put these into effect, supervising the management of the business and reporting to shareholders on their stewardship. Corporate governance involves a set of relationships between a companys management, its board, its shareholders and other stakeholders. Corporate governance also provides the structure through which the objectives of the company are set, and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance are determined. (Gupta, 2005) Cadbury code: The Cadbury Report, formally entitled The Report of the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance was published in December 1992, following the recommendations of the Cadbury Committee. The establishment of the Committee in May 1991 by the Financial Reporting Council, the London Stock Exchange, and the accountancy profession arose in response to the occurrence of financial scandals in the 1980s involving UK listed Companies, which had led to a fall in investor confidence in the quality of companys financial reporting (Cadbury, 1992). Fraud Risk Assessment To be protective of itself and its stakeholders efficiently and effectively from fraud, an organization should recognize fraud risk and the specific risks that directly or indirectly relate to the organization. A structured fraud risk assessment, tailored to the organizations size, complexity, industry, and goals, should be performed and updated periodically. The assessment may be integrated with an overall organizational risk assessment or performed as a stand-alone exercise, but should, at a minimum, include risk identification, risk likelihood and significance assessment, and risk response (ww.acfe.com/documents/managing-business-risk). Managing the risk of fraud, the risk based approach: A risk-based approach enables organisations to target their resources, both for improving controls and for pro-active detection, at problem areas. Developments in corporate governance, including the requirement for statements on internal control, create the atmosphere in which fraud can be considered as a set of risks to be managed alongside other business risks. Managing the risk of fraud should be embedded in the entirety of an organisations risk, control and governance procedures. In wider sense, assessing and managing the risk of fraud involves assessing the organisations overall exposure to fraud, recognising the areas most vulnerable to the risk of fraud, assigning ownership, calculating the scale of fraud risk, responding to the risk of fraud; and determining the success of the fraud-risk strategy (ww.acfe.com/documents/managing-business-risk). Assessing the Organisations Overall Vulnerability to Fraud: Vulnerability to fraud can be assessed at different levels in an organization where a quick assessment of the overall level of risk an organisation is exposed to is often a good starting point and may highlight particular vulnerabilities where some action needs to be taken immediately rather than wait for the results of a more in-depth risk assessment to be completed. A fraud risk assessment should additionally be carried out during the development of any new policies, activities or operations to ascertain whether any new risks arise that need to be managed. The risk assessment should also be reviewed and re-assessed whenever a change in policy occurs or when changes are made to the way in which a policy is to be implemented (ww.acfe.com/documents/managing-business-risk). Fraud risk identification may include gathering external information from regulatory bodies, industry sources, key guidance setting groups), and professional organizations, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE), the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), The CICA Alliance for Excellence in Investigative and Forensic Accounting. Internal sources for identifying fraud risks should include interviews and brainstorming with personnel representing a broad spectrum of activities within the organization, review of whistleblower complaints, and analytical procedures. A proper and working fraud risk identification process includes an calculation of the incentives, pressures, and chances to commit fraud. Employee incentive programs and the metrics on which they are based can provide a map to where fraud is most likely to occur. Fraud risk assessment should consider the potential override of controls by m anagement as well as areas where controls are weak or there is a lack of segregation of duties (Vallabhaneni, 2008). The speed, functionality, and accessibility that created the enormous benefits of the information age have also increased an organizations exposure to fraud. Therefore, any fraud risk assessment should consider access and override of system controls as well as internal and external threats to data integrity, system security, and theft of financial and sensitive business information (Costa Lewis, 2004). Assessing the likelihood and significance of each potential fraud risk is a subjective process that should consider not only monetary significance, but also significance to an organizations financial reporting, operations, and reputation, as well as legal and regulatory compliance requirements. An initial assessment of fraud risk should consider the inherent risk8 of a particular fraud in the absence of any known controls that may address the risk. Risk assessment The control environment Control activities Information and communication Monitoring (Costa Lewis, 2004). THE COSO MODEL: In the United States many firms have adopted the internal control concepts existing in the report of the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Tread way Commission (COSO). Published in 1992, the COSO report describes internal control as: A process, affected by an entitys board of directors, management and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the following categories: effectiveness and efficiency of operations, reliability of financial reporting, and Compliance with applicable laws and regulations. COSO describes internal control as consisting of five essential components. These components, which are subdivided into seventeen factors, include: The control environment Risk assessment Control activities Information and communication Monitoring (Vallabhaneni, 2008). Duties and responsibilities of auditor In most countries the auditor has a statutory duty to make a report to the entitys members on the truth and fairness of the entitys annual accounts. As we have seen in the foregoing section, this report must state the auditors opinion on whether the statements have been prepared in accordance with the relevant legislation and whether they give a true and fair view of the profit or loss for the year and state of affairs at the year end. The duty to report on the truth and fairness of the financial statements is the primary duty associated with the external audit. The auditor has a duty to form an opinion on certain other matters and to report any reservations. The auditor must consider whether: 1. The entity has kept proper accounting records; 2. The entitys balance sheet and income statement agree with the underlying accounting records; 3. All the information and explanations that the auditor considers necessary for the purposes of the audit have been obtained and whether adequate returns for their audit have been received from branches not visited during the audit; 4. The entity has complied with the relevant legislations requirements in respect of the necessary disclosures. If the entity has not made all the disclosures required the audit report should, if possible, contain a statement of the required particulars (Vallabhaneni, 2008). Relationship between internal and external audit The coordination of internal audit activity with external audit activity is very important from both points of view: from external audits point of view is important because, in this way, external auditors have the possibility to raise the efficiency of financial statements audit; the relevancy from internal audits point of view is assured by the fact that this coordination assures for the internal audit a plus of essential information in the assessment of risks control The role of internal auditing is determined by management, and its objectives differ from those of the external auditor who is appointed to report independently on the financial statements. The internal audit functions objectives vary according to managements requirements. The external auditors primary concern is whether the financial statements are free of material misstatements; the external auditor should obtain a sufficient understanding of internal audit activities to identify and assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements and to design and perform further audit procedures. The external auditor should perform an assessment of the internal audit function, when internal auditing is relevant to the external auditors risk assessments. Liaison with internal auditing is more effective when meetings are held at appropriate intervals during the period. The external auditor would need to be advised of and have access to relevant internal auditing reports and be kept informed of any significant matter that comes to the internal auditors attention which may affect the work of the external auditor. Similarly, the external auditor would ordinarily inform the internal auditor of any significant matters which may affect internal auditing (Diamond, 2002). Appropriate audit tests Meaning of audit test: An audit test is a procedure performed by either an external or internal auditor in order to assess the accuracy of various financial statement assertions. The two common categorizations of audit tests are substantive tests and tests of internal controls. Both types of tests are used in external and internal audits in order to reach established audit objectives, as can be outlined in audit checklists or determined based on the results of audit questionnaires. Audit tests typically are performed on a sample basis over an existing group of similar transactions. Sampling approaches can either be statistical or non-statistical, with the ultimate goal being to obtain the most representative sample of the population before testing begins (Diamond, 2002). Types of audit tests It is essential for internal auditors to understand how this method works, as well as its purpose. Also, given the variety of testing methods that may be used during the audit process, it helps to distinguish sampling from other types of examination. Identifying the qualities that distinguish sampling as a distinctive form of testing will provide good understandings for beginning auditors to know why it is used under certain circumstances and determine when to employ this process. During an operational audit, an internal auditor might use observation as an aid in evaluating a units procedures (Diamond, 2002). Simple Random Sampling: In auditing, this technique practices sampling without replacement; that is, once an item has been selected for testing it is not included in population and is not subject to re-selection. An auditor can implement simple random sampling in one of two ways: computer programs or random number tables (Beasley, et.al, 2005). Systematic (Interval) Sampling: This method describes the choice of sample items in such a way that there is an unchanging interval between each sample item. In this method, every Nth item is selected with a random start (Beasley, et.al, 2005). Stratified (Cluster) Sampling: This method describes the selection of sample items by breaking the population down into stratas, or groups. Each stratum is then treated separately. For this strategy to be effective, distribution within clusters should be greater than distribution among clusters. An example of cluster sampling is the inclusion in the sample of all payments or cash disbursements for a particular month. If blocks of homogeneous samples are selected, the sample will be subjective (Beasley, et.al, 2005). Audit tests Process mapping analysis: Develop process maps of the supplier delivery and accounts payable/ approval processes and analyse these maps to identify potential for suppliers to refuse to deliver supply Survey techniques: Perform a supplier satisfaction survey to identify details, magnitude and external perspective of supplier concerns over the accounts payable process. Analytical review: Perform benchmarking analytical tests to compare key process operating statistics with industry best practices and compare specific processes with best practice procedure. Inquiry through facilitated groups: Conduct a focus group involving several major suppliers, key members of the accounts payable process and major departments required to authorize invoices (Beasley, et.al, 2005). Difference between management and auditors responsibilities: In considerable certainty, managements responsibility is to create internal control. Internal control includes the whole system of controls and procedures, both monetary and operational, which are established to lessen risks and their impact, safeguard assets, and ensure efficiency and to inspire devotion to College policies and directives where, it is Internal Audits role to carry out an independent evaluation of the efficiency of these controls. Audit is not part of line management where internal audit does not grow and install procedures, make records or involve in any activity which could compromise its independence (Wilkinson, et. al, 2008). Audit planning: Initial audit planning takes place before the thorough audit work begins, and in planning for a specific audit assignment an auditor must take on a plan with regard to the timing, nature and degree of the audit work to be carried out. The aims of the plan are to ensure proper attention is dedicated to the different areas of the audit and potential problems are identified. On the other hand, audit plan have to be observed as a organized plan of action plotting out the audit processes to be carried out with the aim of reporting on whether a stated set of accounts show a factual and fair-minded view. However, the fact that the audit assignment is the commercial motion of the audit firm should be recognised, and if the costs of carrying out the planned procedures are likely to exceed the client entities budgeted fee then this unevenness should be informed at the planning stage by discussing with the management of the entity (Gupta, 2009). Scope of audit planning: It is importance to keep in mind the formal scope of audit work when considering audits role in risk management. Based on the results of the risk assessment, the internal audit activity should evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of controls encompassing the organizations governance, operations, and information systems which should include reliability and integrity of financial and operational information. Effectiveness and efficiency of operation, Safeguarding of assets, compliance with laws, regulations, and contracts are the scope of audit planning (Spencer Pickett, 2006). Audit testing: Direct tests of account balances and transactions are designed by determining the most efficient manner to substantiate the assertions embodied in the account or transactions. There are many alternatives open to the auditor in planning audit tests. The following are the types of audit tests. Tests of effectiveness: It is essential to determine whether the controls are effective over cash disbursements. Utilize the information performing an integrated audit of controls and account balances. Dual-Purpose Tests of Controls and Account Balances: It is useful to determine whether the controls are effective to help plan the nature, timing, and extent of other audit tests, and test the accuracy of recording the related transactions. Substantive Analytical Tests: It is essential to determine whether account relationships meet expectations, including the possibility that some of the receivables are not collectible. Direct Tests of Account Balances: It is essential to test the existence and dollar accuracy of account balances as stated at historical cost. Direct Tests of Transactions: It is essential to test the existence of sales transactions (Gramling, et.al, 2009, Auditing: A business risk, Cengage Learning Publishing (Gupta, 2009). Evidences that auditors collect from audit files and working papers: There are 7 broad categories of evidence from which the auditor can choose which are physical examination, confirmations, documentation, analytical evidence, written representations, mathematical evidence, oral evidence, and electronic evidence(Online resource: accessed at 20th May 2010, www.issai.org/media). Audit files and testing papers: Working papers provide evidence that an effective, efficient, and economic audit has been carried out. They should therefore be prepared with care and skill. Importance of working papers: Working papers are important because they are necessary for audit quality control purposes provide assurance that the work delegated by the audit partner has been properly completed provide evidence that an effective audit has been carried out increase the economy, efficiency, and effectiveness of the audit contain sufficiently detailed and up-to-date facts which justify the reasonableness of the auditors conclusions retain a record of matters of continuing significance to future audits(Online resource, accessed at 18th May 2010: www.accaglobal.com/pubs/students). Meaning of Statutory Audit Statutory Audit is a checking of accounts required by law where a municipality may be required by its own law to have an annual audit of financial records or a company which is governed by any Law, the Law may require the audit to be conducted and the manner in which audit should be conducted and to whom the report of auditors should be presented (Stittle, 2003) Statutory Audit Report Statutory Auditors Report is prepared in accordance with Article L(225-235) of the French Commercial Code, on the report prepared by the Chairman of the Supervisory Board of Peugeot S.A., on the Internal Control procedures relating to the preparation and processing of financial and accounting information(Stittle , 2003). Purpose of statutory Audit Report The purpose of Statutory Audit Report is to present the fair presentation and the consistency with the financial statements of the information given in the Management Report of the Board of Directors, and in the documents addressed to the shareholders with respect to the financial position and the financial statements; the fair presentation of the information provided in the Management Report of the Board of Directors in respect of remuneration and benefits granted to certain company officers and any other commitments made in their favour in connection with, or subsequent to, their appointment, termination or change in function(Stittle , 2003). Contents of Audit Report The subjects of audit report are title, addressee, opening or Introductory Paragraph, Scope Paragraph, opinion paragraph, signature, place of signature, and date of report. Auditors view of a financial statement, given without any reservations, such view basically states that the auditor feels the company followed all accounting rules properly and that the financial reports are an accurate demonstration of the companys financial condition opposite of qualified opinion(Stittle, 2003). Statutory audit report: The Audit Commissions auditors issue two types of statutory reports: reports in the public interest (RIPIs) issued under Section 8 of the Audit Commission Act 1998 immediate referrals to the Secretary of State issued under Section 19 of the Audit Commission Act 1998 Reports in the public interest Where matters are serious and an auditor decides a matter should be brought to the attention of the public he does this by issuing a report under S8 of the Audit Commission Act 1998 This report is issued to the health body concerned and copied to the Secretary of State. It is for the health body concerned to make this public and to respond to the report and for the NHS Executive to ensure they do so( Sangster, and Wood, 2008) Qualified and unqualified report: An unqualified report is a report from an independent auditor who has examined the accounting records and found no irregularities which has the following demerits a) Lack of consistent application of generally accepted accounting principles b) Substantial doubt about going concern c) Auditor agrees with a departure from promulgated accounting principles d) Emphasis of a matter e) Reports involving other auditors A Qualified Opinion report is supplied when the auditor met one of two types of situations which do not comply with normally accepted accounting principles, however the rest of the monetary statements are properly presented. This type of judgement is very alike to an unqualified or clean opinion, but the report states that the monetary statements are clearly presented with a certain exception which is otherwise misstated. The two types of situations which would cause an auditor to issue this opinion over the unqualified opinion are: Single deviation from GAAP this type of qualification occurs when one or more areas of the financial statements do not conform to GAAP, but do not affect the rest of the financial statements from being fairly presented when taken as a whole. (Accounting Standards Board, 1988)